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"Diversity is viewed as a necessary response to higher education expansion, because students' motivations, talents and job prospects become more varied because the research activities are not extended in tune with the teaching and learning activities. But the patterns of diversity differ strikingly by country. 'Vertically': whether other institutional types are established, what role levels of study programs and degrees play, and to what extent reputational differences of formally the same types of institutions and programs are perceived, and altogether, whether steep or moderate differences of quality exist. 'Horizontally': extent to which substantive profiles come into play: different areas of specialization, different schools of thought as well as political and religious affiliation, academic vs. professional, theoretical vs. applied emphasis. The existing patterns of diversity never seem to be accepted as corresponding to the needs of society; existing patterns are constantly on the move as a consequence of institutional efforts to upgrade their status, competition for resources, policies of clearly structuring systems, etc. National options vary substantially, and even the recent European option for a convergent system of study programs and degrees, the Bologna Process, leaves room for subtle variations." (author's abstract)