Education gender gaps in Pakistan: is the labour market to blame
Autor/in:
Aslam, Monazza
Quelle: Economic Development and Cultural Change, 57 (2009) 4, S 747-84
Inhalt: Differential labor market returns to male and female education are one potential explanation for large gender gaps in education in Pakistan. We empirically test this explanation by estimating private returns to education separately for male and female wage earners. This article contributes to the literature by using a variety of methodologies (ordinary least squares, Heckman correction, two‐stage least squares, and household fixed effects) in order to estimate economic returns to education. The latest nationally representative data - the Pakistan Integrated Household Survey (2002) - are used. Earnings function estimates consistently reveal a sizable gender asymmetry in economic returns to education, with returns to women's education being substantially and statistically significantly higher than men's. The return to an additional year of schooling ranges between 7% and 11% for men and between 13% and 18% for women. There are also large, direct returns to women's education at low levels of schooling, and the education‐earnings profile is more convex for women than for men. However, a decomposition of the gender wage gap (into the component "explained" by differing male and female endowments and the residual component) suggests that there is highly differentiated treatment by employers. We conclude that the total labor market returns are much higher for men, despite returns to education being higher for women. This suggests that parents may have an investment motive in allocating more resources to boys than to girls within households.
Public-private sector segmentation in the labour market in Pakistan
Autor/in:
Aslam, Monazza; Kingdon, Geeta
Quelle: Journal of Asian Economics, 20 (2009) 1, S 34-39
Inhalt: This study investigates public–private sector wage differentials for male and female waged employees in Pakistan. This is done using latest nationally representative data from the Pakistan Living Standards Measurement Survey (PSLM) 2005. We adopt three methodologies to obtain robust estimates of the wage differential and the results reveal that public sector workers enjoy large wage premia. The gross pro-public wage differential is much larger for women than for men. Our findings also show that while private and public sector workers' differing characteristics 'explain' a larger proportion of the private–public wage gap for men, this is not the case for women.
Schlagwörter:Arbeitsmarkt; privater Sektor; private sector; Pakistan; wage difference; öffentlicher Sektor; Lohnunterschied; public sector; Mann; woman; South Asia; Südasien; gender-specific factors; man; Pakistan; labor market; public-private sector; labour market
SSOAR Kategorie:Arbeitsmarktforschung, Entwicklungsländersoziologie, Entwicklungssoziologie, Frauen- und Geschlechterforschung
Female autonomy and gender gaps in education in Pakistan
Autor/in:
Aslam, Monazza
Quelle: University of Cambridge, Faculty of Education, Research Consortium on Educational Outcomes and Poverty (RECOUP); Cambridge (RECOUP Working Papers, 3), 2007. 42 S
Inhalt: In this study we examine whether gender bias in education depends on the extent of female decision-making power. Household headship is used as a measure of female autonomy, with different types of households theorized to reflect varying degrees of female autonomy. Most female-headed-households in Pakistan are formed either because women are widowed or because husbands migrate. Women in male-headed-households are hypothesized to have least autonomy followed by married women heads whose migrant husbands may retain some decision-making power. Widow heads are hypothesized to have the greatest degree of autonomy among women in different households. The econometric findings suggest that married women heads gender-discriminate as much as male heads but that widow-heads have significantly lower bias against girls in enrolment decisions than male heads. The results also suggest that educated female heads gender differentiate less than both uneducated female heads and than male heads. The evidence suggests that households having better educated women with more independent status discriminate against the education of their daughters less than other households.
Rates of return to education by gender in Pakistan
Autor/in:
Aslam, Monazza
Quelle: University of Cambridge, Faculty of Education, Research Consortium on Educational Outcomes and Poverty (RECOUP); Cambridge (RECOUP Working Papers, 1), 2007. 41 S
Inhalt: Differential labour market returns to male and female education are one potential explanation for large gender gaps in education in Pakistan. We empirically test this explanation by estimating private returns to education separately for male and female wage earners. This paper contributes to the literature by using a variety of methodologies (Ordinary Least Squares, Heckman correction, 2SLS and household fixed effects) in order to consistently estimate economic returns to education. Earnings function estimates reveal a sizeable gender asymmetry in economic returns to education, with returns to women's education being substantially and statistically significantly higher than men's. However, a decomposition of the gender wage gap suggests that there is highly differentiated treatment by employers. We conclude that the total labour market returns are much higher for men, despite returns to education being higher for women. This suggests that parents may have an investment motive in allocating more resources to boys than to girls within households.